CREOLIZATION AND THE PRODUCTION AND NEGOTIATION OF BOUNDARIES IN BREYTEN BREYTENBACH ' S RECENT WORK

Much of the South African poet Breyten Breytenbach’s work has been concerned with borders. In this article I examine borders and creolization in three important poems from Nine landscapes of our time bequeathed to a beloved (Nege landskappe bemaak aan 'n beminde, 1993), Paper flower (Papierblom, 2002) and The wind-catcher (Die windvanger, 2007). The link between creolization and boundaries is the poet’s conception of identity and freedom. As is often the case the boundaries of the self are questioned as the poet permutates the central concepts. Crossing boundaries entails entering into dialogue not only with the self but also with the mother tongue itself and with a variety of other artists and writers. In other words, in Breytenbach's work an abrogation and appropriation of the own tradition ("erfgoed") as well as of material from others, other places and other traditions occur. In these three case studies in particular it is clear how the poet stretches and deforms boundaries as part of his poetic project to concretize a dynamic freedom. Creolization and the poetics of relation In 1973 the South African Breyten Breytenbach stunned the Afrikaner establishment by calling the Afrikaner a bastard nation with a bastard language” (“‘n bastervolk met ‘n bastertaal”, (Breytenbach 1976, 123). The English translation is a bit weak as bastard does not have the strong connotations of hybridity and racial mixing baster has in Afrikaans, but its connotations of inferiority and contempt are quite accurate. This was the first time he spoke in public in South Africa after a long period of voluntary exile. Much of Breytenbach’s work is concerned with borders, especially the border between homeland and exile. His work seems to need a yearning for somewhere else, and this reached a poignant Creolization and the Production and Negotiation of Boundaries in Breyten Breytenbach's Recent Work 110 climax in his prison poetry, in which there is a constant yearning for freedom, to be elsewhere, and a constant imagining of states beyond the prison, which, sadly, were all doomed to fail before the reality of imprisonment. In this paper I want to examine a few important poems from Nine landscapes of our time bequeathed to a beloved (Nege landskappe bemaak aan 'n beminde) (1993), Paper flower (Papierblom) (2002) and The wind-catcher (Die windvanger) (2007). The focus will fall on the crossing of boundaries, the creolization of the self and of the mother tongue (“moertaal”) and the creolization of the boundary between word and image. For this purpose I find Svend Erik Larsen’s (2007) methodology for the analysis of borders quite useful – but it would need some extension to fit Breytenbach’s work. The category of theme should be expanded into different frames of reference, I think. Moving across a boundary creates meaning, and I am particularly interested in crossings of boundaries that could be called creolization, that is the mixing of different fields and the new relations that come into being by such mixing. Creolization I regard as a principle of rhizomatic understanding – trying to understand literary phenomena in networks of dissemination, multiplicity and diversity. I take this idea from Edouard Glissant’s Poetics of relation (2006) and the situation of archipelagic thought, that is, thought continually exposed to cultural and linguistic winds and seas, as it were. I also regard it as a principle of deconstruction – of taking leave of foundations and entering into new relations and communitas (Turner 1975) with others. Creolization to my mind entails three important processes. The first is the mixing of cultures and traditions leading to new forms of thinking and expression. The second process is localization or adapting to the local. Creolization comes from the word criollo in South American Spanish that is today still used in the sense of “local”, “of this place”, “born and raised here”, without a specific racial or ethnic meaning. The primitive literal meaning goes back etymologically to Latin creare, “to create”, via Portugese, and boils down to “something or somebody born or raised” plus a deictic element like here (Schwegler 2003, 53-54).

Nearer to the linguistic meaning of creolization, the third process entails extending and adapting an instrumental or communicative tradition (like a Pidgin language) for mother tongue (or mothertradition) use -in other words, testing and extending the boundaries of the vocabulary, language structure and expressive power of a language.
Creolization in all three of these senses figures in Breytenbach's work.

Crossing real borders and experiencing life in nomadic interludes
Creolizing the racial divide One cannot fully understand the import of Breytenbach's emphasis on creolization and bastardization without an understanding of the colonial and racial history of South Africa.Breytenbach (1999) himself rewrote this history by again emphasizing that the Afrikaner is an African and by pointing out that he is a cultural mulatto and that Afrikaans is a "lovely fluent creole tongue born from the clash and copulation of cultures" ("lieflike gladde bastertong gebore uit die botsing en die paring van kulture", (Breytenbach 1999, 27).
In this regard he quotes Glissant's views on the monolinguality of the root and errantcy as "the search for a freedom within particular surroundings" (Glissant 2006, 20).Broadly, Breytenbach is making an appeal for the recognition of differences and diversity as sources for transcending the limitations of such particular circumstances.By underlining the diverse, impure and mixed nature of Afrikaans as a Dutch creole with Malay-Portugese and African elements, he is attacking the accepted view of the pure European descent of the language and the Afrikaners' concern with racial purity.He equates creolization with crossing accepted schemes and opening-up new spaces of consciousness in the name of freedom.By calling the Afrikaners -descendants of the Dutch colonists who define their identity in terms of the language of Afrikaans -Africans he is arguing for a rich diversity that also recognises the dark, socially suppressed and earthly aspects of language, setting these views against the idea that language is merely a politically correct medium of communication.Cultural and linguistic hybridity also means that there is no single uniform Afrikaner identity.He radicalizes this even further by stating that Afrikaner identity is only an identity of becoming different ("Die Afrikaner is slegs 'n identiteit in die andersword", (Breytenbach 1999, 42).This means perpetual errantcy, continual dynamic change, "a dialectic of contradictions" (43), of which the chameleon is also an emblem.He ends by defending, again in Glissant's words, the right of "marginal and deviant persons" "to do [their] own surpassing".
From this it is clear that crossing boundaries and changing ways of thinking in Breytenbach's poetry resonate with radical political implications.
The Middle World, an in-between and liminal zone Since his release from prison in 1982 (Galloway 1990, 219) Breytenbach has become even more of a traveller, even more nomadic, dividing his time between Paris, a cottage in a village near Barcelona, the island Gorée before Dakar, the town of Montagu in South Africa and New York, where he teaches part of the year as distinguished professor of writing.The hostile reception of his play Die toneelstuk (The play, Breytenbach 2001) caused him to dissociate himself very strongly from the Afrikaners and even to threaten to never write in Afrikaans again.He has, in his own words, become a un-citizen of the Middle Worldone who is defined by who he is not.The Middle World is in-between, somewhere between east and west, north and south.It lies on the margins, the edges, the living borders; it is different and otherwise.He calls it a "figure-shaping archipelago of applied freedom and unintended alienation" (my translation) (Breytenbach 1998, 25).

Travelling, writing, making love
One can trace the importance of errantcy in Breytenbach's work for example in the collection Papierblom (Paper flower) from 1998.It bears the subtitle "72 poems from an journal of errantcy" (72 gedigte uit 'n swerfjoernaal).It recounts a kind of "going nowhere slowly", being on the road, as a nomad, without a fixed address.It is written by Jan Afrika, an African, an ordinary man from Africa, bearing a surname common among the people of mixed race in South Africa (the socalled Coloureds who were excluded from the definition of racially pure Afrikaners).
The link between travelling and the title is not immediately clear, even though the collection contains many poems with some form of travel in the title.The idea of travel is central in the book: travelling is to experience new parts of the world, like Hong Kong, Saigon or Princeton.Travelling is to keep experiencing and describing what exists -knowing how problematic such description can be.For it is true that the word "scorches a void where the thing was" ("skroei 'n leemte waar die ding was", 31).
A paper flower is an artificial flower but in Afrikaans papierblom also is the popular name for the bougainvillea.And of course the poem itself also is a paper flower -not a fleur du mal but a fleur du papier.
The front cover associates the paper flower quite strongly with the female genitalia, the warm flower between your thighs" ("die warm blom tussen jou dye") as it is called in the poem "ekstasis" (78).The title poem (115) underlines this association but also links the paper flower strongly with writing and with fucking.
The link between travelling and making love emerges very clearly in the poem "finger fucking" ("vingerfok", 118).The golden day after making love is a day for travelling, and the journey is landscapes of water and cloud and shadows ("die reis is landskappe van water/en wolk en skaduwees") -that is, without form, fluid.
The second last stanza makes a strong association between writing, travelling and sex.The hand writes, the eye travels, the paper is a woman with curves and sighs.The whole process is that of loving that passes on or takes on death.Sex is writing is life.In other words, resistance against death equals the poem, the paper flower.The rationale behind this view is the universal analogy of Tantric Buddhism between writing, travelling and making love.Writing, moving the hand across the paper, is like caressing the beloved's body and analogous to travelling across a landscape (cf.Paz 1975).
Another interesting travel poem in the collection is "twin journey" ("tweereis", 48), in which the speaker goes travelling with myself, his alter ego, and "dreams open a secret country full of chameleons and other adventures" ("droom ons 'n geheime land vol verkleurmannetjies en ander avonture oop", 48).The chameleon (Kamiljoen) is one of Breytenbach's personae and also an emblem of the un-citizen of the Middle World.
Travelling in this collection is also a matter of poems opening onto "travelogues of the self" ("reisbeskrywings van die self, 14), and this is where the poem "I's place" ("ek se plek", 72) will take us.
Travelling where the words lead; creolizing the boundaries of the self This poem mentions the idea of creolization more than once, but it makes clear that creolization is a kind of play on words, ringing the changes on words, travelling where the words lead.In this case creolization is permutation: Mutation and metamorphosis are central ideas in this poemespecially the amazing metamorphosis of the I -a series of deformations and creolizations of language that are quite difficult to follow.
In stanza 1 mutations en mural ruins indicate the deformation of the I, but always strongly connects it to places -ruined, empty, desolate places of habitation, places of remembering and of memory.Metaphorically these constitute places, forms, shells or figures in which the I previously lived.In Bachelard's (1969, 10) terms, shells for protecting the vulnerable mollusc of the self.
Important links in the chain of metamorphoses are the soundsalliteration and assonance -and permutation: in this case of the very idea of mutation.See for example the series mutasie -muil -mulatgemuit -metamorfose (mutation -mule -mulatto -mutiny) and also rumoer -oproer -gefoefel -snoer) (tumult -revolt -fondling -cord).The words themselves are in revolt -the impure, creolized mulatto words.Literally it is also a stirring or mixing of words which creates new meanings.The poems themselves -disparaging called recitations here -are also revolting and making love.
Stomme ("mute) is ambiguous in Afrikaans: it means both "not being able to speak" and "lamentable" -in contrast to the uproar of the words.Recitations is again an effect of the rhyme: it rhymes with murasies in Afrikaans.What is clear in this stanza are the multiple meanings that Breytenbach creates in his poems by permutation: the arbitrary manipulation of signifiers.Permutation is a principle of arbitrariness, of the entry of pure chance into the poem.
It is in that sense that we should understand the next lines.The link between Monday, murder and cord ("moord" and "koord" in Afrikaans) is again the rhyme and alliteration, but also the missing link word (Afrikaans "woord") itself.The I becomes transformed into something that strings the syllables together; into a poetical principle of cohesion.And in the end it is turned into a rope for stringing up the self.In Afrikaans the line is determined by two sets of permutations: kwylbek ("slaver-mouth") means both "mad" and "drooling with lust", and this verse is the outcome of the rhyming series from snoer back to rumoer and oproer (lace -tumult -uproar).Both the drooling and the mouth are the results of the series of permutations muil -gemuitgefoefel (mule/maw -mutiny -fondling).
The word here in the last line is a specific but unnamed place, deictically empty, but it can also indicate the poem itself, meaning that the I is part of or result of the writing process.The I is posited at the beginning of the series of complex phrases, but disappears, becomes empty, a mere grammatical concept, a mere substitute.Of course we know fully well that the word I is not a substance but an empty pronoun that we mostly assume refers to a speaker of writer behind the text.
Stanza 2 lists a further series of ruins.The whore's doss ("hoer se kooi") suggests that both the I and writing are a kind of prostitution, a cheapening of what is holy.The second metaphor (it's an empty handle in the gaping poetry of deforming and deworming from caesar and cow ") ("'n leë handvatsel in die gapende poësie /van omvorming en ontwurming van keiser/ en koei") is much more difficult.Gapende ("gaping") is often used with muil ("maw") -the dangerous open maw of an animal.The I (and poetry itself) thus becomes a gaping maw or gaping pussy -a devouring sexual organ.In this poetry of transformation, this process of dying, the I is but an empty name, a handle.Again the rhyme takes us further: from koei ("cow") to gestoei (wrestling) and the frame of a worker, maybe a coloured farm worker (a mulatto), enslaved by liquor and violence.
Stanza 3 is a further metamorphosis of the frames of hanging and of the farm.The I turns into a farmer (Boer, synonym for an Afrikaner, but also white master, landowner) guilty of his past, but one that has to be hanged as it were by the rope of his own words.The writer is guilty of sedition, prostitution, sexual excess.Part of his punishment is that his cheeks (derived from winter's throat), his mouth in other words, gets burnt by all the metaphors that he spewed out.Gefraai means "decorated, made pretty" but in English also to fry, to bake in oil.
The last line means that both the line and the poem itself get destroyed by fire, but the fire image is paradoxically also a celebration of the intensity of poetry itself.
The last stanza names a string of places, situations or reasons of writing.The last three lines, the very lines that mention creolization, are very obscure, however: Lyne (lines") can refer back to cord or rope, and the bodemlose swaai ("bottomless swinging") to swinging on the gallows.Bodemlose is mostly used with sea or abyss -like in the bottomless pit of hell.What seems to be indicated here are the bottomless depths that open when the writer starts stringing out his intestine -figuratively, starts dwelling on the guilt of the past.Derms uitryg about the past like a baboon is said to do if he gets shot in the stomach has become a very resonant phrase among post-Apartheid Afrikaners.The writer starts stringing out his most intimate feelings, embarking on the unfathomable and endless processes of writing.This does seem to lead, through all the metamorphoses, deformations and creolizations, to a temporary point of rest in the word I -as though the process did result in a self, a person, an identity.But this is an illusion.We as readers realize that the point of equilibrium is the result of the process, that is, of the poem that we have in front of us.The circle from I to I is complete.
In this poem we do not find a traditional self, a cogito, linked to a specific place or bounded by clear boundaries, but rather a nomadic self that is constructed from mutations and transformations and that discards the shells of previous habitations (ruins, demarcated spaces or frames or reference) as it changes from one situation to the other -a little like a chameleon.As the poem unfolds, the link between I and place becomes highly problematic, underlining that the I is but a temporary construction.
Permutation is not only a matter of manipulating the signifiersit also forces the reader to transcend different conceptual boundaries in a series of shifts in perspective.In poems like these we can see at work what the poet calls word work.This is the title of his writing journal Woordwerk (Breytenbach 1999).This word work, analogous to Freud's dream work, is an important process in Breytenbach's poetry.In this process of working the words the language itself, the mother tongue, more intimately here called the womb language ("moertaal"), inevitably also gets creolized.

Creolizing the mother tongue and the boundary between painting and reality
In true postcolonial tradition Breytenbach's work is both an abrogation and an appropriation of the own tradition ("erfgoed") as well as of material from other artists, other places and other traditions.
The collection Nine landscapes... opens with the well-known words of Horace on Ut picura poesis.This motto suggests that the poet wants to investigate the boundary between poems and paintings as well as the boundaries between words, landscape paintings and the real world.What working the words (permutation) does to landscapes -and to the very idea of a landscape: these are the objectives of this investigation.
The poem Leading in ("Inleiding" (Breytenbach 1993, 3) introduces the idea of a landscape but phrases like "everything is development, completed in full-time" ("alles is ontplooiing, voltyds voltooi") seem to describe a quite frozen landscape -much like the suspended action in the poem "Icon" ("ikoon") from Breytenbach's first collection, The iron cow must sweat (die ysterkoei moet sweet, Breytenbach 1967).It seems to indicate a landscape in the artistic sense of the word, in other words, a landscape painting.The boundary between reality and painting appears to get erased in the process of exploration.The painting is a kind of mirror in which the speaker sees himself reflected, but that mirror is empty.inleiding Die ware landskap is een van rus.

leading-in
The true landscape is one of rest.The second stanza seems to be a description of the content of the painting -or it might be an imaginary landscape that is presented as if it is being described.The emphasis is quite strongly on rest, on suspended action, but from the word This (l.21) onwards it seems to go over into an indirect description of the landscape.Landscape and the very idea of a landscape are in the final lines of this stanza virtually erased; the idea of possession, possession itself and even the existence of ideas get rubbed out.

You can forget about creators and
Stanza 3 appears to be a kind of conclusion or interpretation of the thoughts that the painting evokes; more of a wish that the ghostly painting, the mirror image, would form a kind of memory; a reexperiencing, a re-description of the contemplation of the landscape.The poem ends in the vision of a dream that is "spelled from my stumbling of words" (wat "uit my struikeling van woorde gespel sal word") -a landscape lofty enough to encounter the beloved; a transcendental landscape where both landscape and beloved are brought into being by the words, and especially by splitting and creolizing words or by a stumbling of words.
A key here is the word barensland, literally "land of birth", which is created by splitting and deconstructing the expression barensnood, "the pains of giving birth".The pain (nood) turns into a need (the same word but in a different language) to bequeath to someone the contours of his dreamland, his country of memory.Someone has to share the immense effort to give birth to this new country of Language itself is an important theme in the last three stanzas.These stanzas are presented in brackets as if commenting on the exploration of reality and painting in the first part, relativizing and topologically deforming that part: • Tunes on the mother tongue (literally womb tongue, "moertong") are getting thread-bare.
• Words break from the throat and run wild like horses, creolizing a set idiom.
• Song is tongue that draws a line from heart to crotch • Seeing-song is landscape, that is, the landscape is created by the words in a moment of epiphany • Who might speak, even though language is imperfect and corrupt?
• The last stanza presents the final reaction of the speaker: again milling or permutating words, but also doing Om -that is, meditating, saying the Buddhist mantra Oum mane padme hum.
The poem thus describes an imaginary landscape painting, from which the poet develops a kind of truth (that the painting preserves experience and keeps it in memory), but this in turn leads to a transcendental jump into the land of birth -the land where language decays and escapes from beauty but also brings different landscape into being.The poem rejects representation in favour of presenting or creating a different reality through the seeing-song -in seeing and in song.This different reality is relative and temporary and the only consolation is to keep on singing and breathing (or meditating).
The poem is a topological deformation of the (imaginary) painting and its values of memory and representation in favour of a radical poetical view: an imaginary world comes into being by means of words.The abstract seeing is given concrete form in the landscape.

Creolizing the medial boundary between word and image
An equally radical deformation -and also a meditation on boundaries -occurs in the poem Maurits House ("Mauritshuis") from Breytenbach's most recent collection Die windvanger (The windcatcher, Breytenbach 1993, 143-4).
The Mauritshuis is the Royal Picture Gallery in The Hague renowned for its collection of 17 th century Dutch paintings.What Breytenbach is creolizing here is not individual paintings but rather a whole era, the Golden Age of the Dutch 17 th century.This is clear from the beginning: The speaker in the poem is crossing the boundary between word and image and describing the still lifes from the 17 th century, brimful with the abundance of the time, but that at the same time are also expressing the idea of vanitas: "everything dies, passes away; everything comes to nothing; all is useless" (in the words of Ecclesiastes) (Good News Bible).All the images carry the marks of death -the name of the cold wind that blows through the entire collection and that the poet tries to catch or to hold on to, as the title would suggest.This is a very generalised ekphrasis, losing the detail but pulling the paintings into the vanitas framework.

Mauritshuis
Death is not the only underlying framework that gets activated: there is another, exemplified by the jaunty collars and ornamental cuffs ("die swierige krae en polsversierings"), and exceptional headdecorations ("uitsonderlike hooftooisels"), namely ornate dress.These signs serve to place the paintings securely in a bygone era.
The second stanza, isolated semantically and typographically, constructs a clear boundary between the inside and the outside: the inside offers but a poor reflection of the light from the outside.
The poem is a meditation on the passing-away of a way of life and its forms and symbols -the imagined forms of thought ("verbeelde gedagtevorms", l. 14), the environment in which feelings moved ("die omgewing waarbinne gevoelens beweeg het", l. 16), but this occurs in a stanza, the third one, that breaks the frame of the poem to make a meta-artistic and self-reflective comment on the nature of art itself.Here the boundary of communication is evoked, especially the communication with the past.The poem implies that this communication is partial and breaks down; the representations and imagined forms of thought from the past are losing their meaning.Ekphrasis is impossible; crossing the line between words and paintings refuses to render meaning; the soliloquy makes no sense; dialogue with the past is a fond dream.
What becomes clear, is that the paintings of the past have become incomprehensible today, even though they are described, in v 31, in remarkable spatial metaphors, as "a condensation as protection against time" and as "creating spaces in which one may die".The theme that is evoked here is the final boundary: death.
An important represented boundary that the mind of the speaker seems to alight on, is the shore on which a whale is represented as beached.But having established a frame in which the speaker reads the paintings with little comprehension (even if with wonder at their strange messages), the poem in the end as it were draws the whale into the meta-artistic speculation, breaking the boundary between represented reality and meditation on representation, turning truth into a deadly shallow shore.By transgressing the boundary between painting (as described) and speculation the speaker exposes the idea of searching for the truth to a very strong irony.
The ending of the poem is quite beautiful but enigmatic.Here the speaker is projecting the painterly landscapes onto the outsideand in that landscape he presents the teeming life of the present but as it were tainted with the memory of the forms of thought of the pastnot the least of these forms are the representations of the Dutch skies in the 17 th century landscapes like Vermeer's "Landscape over Delft".The boundary between viewer and object folds back onto itself, so that the viewer starts seeing the outside in the forms of the representation, transgressing the basic communicative framing of the poem.
The images of cloth and wind are instances of two central themes of the collection that are especially clear in the 3 rd section -and of Breytenbach's series of book rags ("Boekdoeke") that inspired it.The title of the section -lappesait -is based on a South African slang word lapa side, meaning "there, over there" (Silva 1996.), but it also alludes to rags ("lappe") in this case.Like the wind deforms rags so in this poem boundaries get pulled into different shapes and get stretched into amazing invaginations.Such topological deformations are typical of Breytenbach's poems -particularly of his endings, that again deforms the temporary structures that came into being in the course of the poem.

Conclusion
Breytenbach's poetry evokes and crosses real borders.The three cases that I examined show deformations of the bounded Western self, accepted ideas about mimesis and representation and also of bafflement at kinds of representation of the past.But it is by means of his word-working that the poet forces us to shift our frames of

.
are too old to act our night will go up in flutes and slopes: on the hand the sun's language is known, it's true the wind on the cheek as well although the eye no longer sounds as vividly the bird's hanging on the sky's slanting gusts of breath: the real landscape is rest.And I have a dream: to climb high enough En ek het 'n droom: om hoog genoeg te loop om jou teë te kom, dat jy uit my struikeling van woorde gespel sal word in 'n land waar ek met jou mag praat: ek nood iemand om hart, hand, droom, gebroke geheue aan na te laat en die kontoere van my barensland.(Sien, ek ken nog baie meer wysies op moertong as in ander tale, al begin die snedes plek-plek reeds yl, en is ek meer eiewys met ander woorde, wat soms verhoed dat lied uit keelgat breek om woord-oploop met vrye teuels te sit-sit wik op die hand: sien, lied is van tong wat streep tussen hart en mik.Sienlied is landskap.)(Moet ek my dááma skik?Is dit dan só verderflik om haasbek te smaail? to encounter you, that you may my oë toe en sing klip maal beuels en moorde en maans, knyp die oë digdig en doen hoem .