Assessment of Alaska reindeer populations and range conditions

Populat ions of reindeer (Rangifer tarandus) have fluctated greatly since their i n t r o d u c t i o n to A l a s k a in 1891. In the 1930s, reported numbers exceeded 600,000. Presently, 38,000 reindeer graze 6.2 m i l l i o n ha of rangeland and w o o d l a n d i n Western A l a s k a ( f r o m 6 6 ° 5 4 ' N to 5 2 ° 0 7 ' N latitude). C o n d i t i o n of w i n t e r range p r o d u c i n g fruticose lichens (Cladina rangiferina, Cladina arbuscula, Cladina stellaris, Cetraria cucullata, Cetraria islandica) is of major concern. M o n i t o r i n g programs have been established for vegetation, f ire, reindeer and w i l d l i f e . Reindeer have overgrazed l i chen resources o n some Ber ing Sea Islands. W i l d f i r e s have had the greatest impact o n l ichen range deplet ion o n the mainland. O v e r g r a z i n g has been a p r o b l e m i n local ized areas. M o o s e (AIces alces) and muskox (Ovibos moschatus) rarely contr ibute to major l ichen deplet ion. 60-80% of the main land and 5-30% of most island w i n t e r l ichen ranges are presently estimated to be i n good to excellent ecological condi t ion . Procedures for assessing condi t ion of the l ichen ranges are being further refined.


Introduction
Sheldon Jackson, General Agent of Education in Alaska, toured the northern coasts of Siberia and Alaska in 1890. He noted that reindeer herding made Siberian natives more independent than Alaska natives. Private funds were used to transport 16 reindeer from Siberia to Unalaska and Amaknak Islands in September 1891, to improve living conditions and reduce starvation among Alaska natives. These reindeer starved to death for lack of lichen forage (Brickey, 1975).
These reindeer were dispersed throughout northern and western Alaska.
Siberian reindeer herders were originally brought to instruct local natives in reindeer husbandry and herding techniques (Brickey, 1975). They were replaced by Saami herders from Norway in 1894 (Olsen, 1970). The pristine ranges provided excellent forage. With good animal husbandry practices, such as 24-hour herding, the population rapidly expanded. Net annual herd increase reached 25-33.5%/year (Palmer, 1934). By 1932, the reindeer population had grown to 641,100 (Mozee, 1933) (Fig.   1). Lomen (1929) 1900 1910 1920 1930 1940 1950 1960 1970 1980 1990 2000 Years Reindeer became a valuable resource. Reindeer meat -became a normal part of the local diet. During 1928-30, 2,500,000 kg of reindeer meat were shipped to markets in the lower 48 states (Palmer, 1934). By-product markets were developed for antlers, blood and viscera. Canned dog food was retailed. Antlers were exported and used for knife handles. Skins were used locally for making boots, parkas, trousers and sleeping bags (Palmer, 1934). Corrals slaughtering plants, underground storage tunnels and shipping facilities were constructed throughout the reindeer areas (Fig. 2).
By 1929, the non-native, profit-driven Lomen Corporation asserted much influence over the industry. The Corporation's prominence, combined with a change from subsistence to profitdriven motives, prompted congressional investigations from 1927-1938. On September 1, 1937 mer, 1926, 1934, 1945 Although reindeer thrive in the more temperate Aleutian climates without a lichen winter diet, on most reindeer winter ranges, if lichens are available, they are highly preferred (Palmer, 1945;Andreev, 1954;Skjenneberg and Slagsvoid, 1968;Pegau, 1968b Grazing intensity of key forage plants (utilization) was also determined during range surveys and field evaluations. Utilization is a measure of grazing intensity and extent of forage use at the end of a grazing season. Nine utilization cover classes were designated, ranging from no utilization (class 0) to extreme utilization (class 8) (Swanson and Knapman, 1986). Both lichen removal and physical damage to the habitat increase as numbers increase. Utilization classes are summarized in Table 1.

Result and discussion
The

Seward Peninsula
In 1892, 53 reindeer were introduced on the northeast side of Port Clarence at the site of the new Teller Reindeer Station (Brickey, 1975). The Seward Peninsula soon became the center of the Alaska reindeer industry. Stern et al. (1977) reported that 127,331 reindeer were on the peninsula in 1932. Numbers plummeted to 6,570 in 1951 ( Fig. 3)  trace -25% mineral soil and/or organic material exposed.

Nunivak Island
Eighty-one reindeer from Golovin, Alaska were introduced to Nunivak Island in the fall of 1920 (Palmer, 1938). Additionally, ten woodland caribou bulls were introduced in 1925, and 523 female reindeer were added in 1928 (Palmer and Miller 1930). The island appeared to provide unlimited forage. The herd grew rapidly in the absence of predators (Fig. 4). The original estimated carrying capacity was 25,000 (Palmer and Miller, 1930). In 1938, Palmer revised the carrying capacity to 10,000. However, by that time herd increase was 33.7%/year. The population peaked at > 30,000 in 1944, followed by a second peak of 23,000 in 1964. Both peaks were followed by population crashes (Fig. 4). During the 1944 and 1964 peaks, density was 1 reindeer/13 ha and 1 reindeer/18 ha, respectively.
Herding and grazing management was limited.
Because of lichen depletion, Rouse (1948) 1911-1991. (source: Scheffer 1951and Davey 1963-1988. railing. During some years, the herd remained on the island until the reindeer swam back to the mainland during summer. Palmer and Rouse (1945) reported that in 1929 the island had been overgrazed as early as 1918. At that time, young lichens were 2-5 mm in height. Lichen cover increased rapidly then slowed as Empetrum and Arctostaphylos increased during the later stages of recovery. The estimated time for complete recovery was 25 years. The present herd numbers 1,500 (F. Pete, pers. commun.).

St. Lawrence Island
In 1940

St. Paul Island
Twenty-five reindeer were introduced to St.
Paul Island in the fall of 1911 from Unalakleet (Scheffer 1951). The numbers grew to > 2,000 by 1938 (Fig. 6). At this peak population, rein-deer reached a density of 1 reindeer/4.4 ha, 3 times greater than the carrying capacity of the range (Scheffer, 1951). With the disappearance of lichens, reindeer did not have adequate winter food reserves (Scheffer, 1951 (Scheffer, 1951), (Fig. 7). The population declined to 168 in 1924 and to 60 by 1926. After this rapid decline, the herd continued to slowly decline until 1950 when it disappeared from over hunting. The lichen ranges remained in good condition (Scheffer, 1951). In 1980, 15 reindeer from Umnak Island were re-introduced, and the herd increased to 100 by 1991. At present, the winter lichen range is in excellent condition.

St. Matthew Island
Twenty-nine reindeer were introduced to St.
Matthew Island in 1944 from Nunivak Island.
Only 42 remained in 1966 and they eventually disappeared (Klein, 1968