El impacto del género, el nivel socioeconómico y la escuela en las destrezas de español de los estudiantes puertorriqueños
DOI:
https://doi.org/10.7557/1.11.2.6415Keywords:
gender; socioconomic status; school; linguistic performance; students; academic gapsAbstract
Studies that look at language teaching and learning in Puerto Rico are mainly focused on the effects that macrolevel factors (e.g., political status and language policies) have on Puerto Ricans’ linguistic competence. These factors have been linked to low language proficiency in students of the public school system. However, the impact of microlevel factors (e.g., gender, SES, and school) have been practically overlooked. The present study aims to address this gap by evaluating the effects of gender, socioeconomic status, and school on students' Spanish skills. We used data from the Medición y Evaluación para la Transformación Educativa (META). The total sample size was 21,425 11th grade students from 194 public schools. Statistical analyzes reveal a linguistic gap by gender and socioeconomic status. In addition, they suggest that the effectiveness of the school and the composition of the school population have a mitigating function in the gender and SES gap. We propose that, although the school, in some cases, does seem to fulfill a compensatory function, the effectiveness of the school seems to be closely linked to the socioeconomic conditions of its students.
Keywords: gender; socioconomic status; school; linguistic performance; students; academic gaps
References
Alcaraz, N. (2015). Evaluación versus calificación. Aula de Encuentro 2(17), pp. 209-236.
Andrés, L., Urquijo, S., Navarro, J. I. & M. García-Sedeño. (2010). Contexto alfabetizador familiar: relaciones con la adquisición de habilidades prelectoras y desempeño. European Journal of Education and Psychology 3(1), pp. 129-410. Obtenido de: https://dialnet.unirioja.es/servlet/articulo?codigo=3227545. https://doi.org/10.30552/ejep.v3i1.38
Barreto, A. A. (2000). Speaking English in Puerto Rico: The impact of affluence, education, and returning migration. Centro Journal 12(1), pp. 5-17. Obtenido de: https://www.redalyc.org/articulo.oa?id=37711306001.
Bickel, P. & K. A. Doksum. (2015). Mathematical Statistics Vol 1 & 2 . Boca Ratón, FL, CRC Press. https://doi.org/10.1201/9781315369266
Block, D. (2015). Social class in Applied Linguistics. Annual Review of Applied Linguistics 35, pp. 1-9. https://doi.org/10.1017/S0267190514000221
Block, D. (2017). Political economy in applied linguistics research. Language Teaching 50(1), pp. 32-64. https://doi.org/10.1017/S0261444816000288
Block, D. &, V. Corona. (2014). Exploring class-based intersectionality. Language, Culture and Curriculum 27(1), pp. 27-42. https://doi.org/10.1080/07908318.2014.894053
Brand, S., Felner, R., Shim, M., Seitsinger & T. Dumas. (2003). Middle school improvement and reform: Development and validation of a school-level assessment of climate, cultural pluralism and school safety. Journal of Educational Psychology 95(3), pp. 570-588. https://doi.org/10.1037/0022-0663.95.3.570
Burman, D. D., Bitan, T. & J. R. Booth. (2008). Sex differences in neural processing of language among children. Neuropsychologia 46(5), pp. 1349-1362. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.neuropsychologia.2007.12.021
Caraballo-Cueto, J. (2020). Aprovechamiento académico y el cierre de escuelas en Puerto Rico. Obtenido de: https://www.researchgate.net/publication/343636485_APROVECHAMIENTO_ACADEMICO_Y_EL_CIERRE_DE_ESCUELAS_EN_PUERTO_RICO?enrichId=rgreq-65e4b70dd34d0eef32f7ca5530368145XXX&enrichSource=Y292ZXJQYWdlOzM0MzYzNjQ4NTtBUzo5MjQxMTAzMDE0MzM4NTdAMTU5NzMzNjQ3Mzc5Mg%3D%.
Caro, D. H. (2009). Socio-economic status and academic achievement trajectories from childhood to adolescence. Canadian Journal of Education 32(3), pp. 558-590.
Caroll, K. (2016). Understanding Perceptions of Language Threat: The case of Puerto Rico. Caribbean Studies 44(1-2), pp. 167-186. https://doi.org/10.1353/crb.2016.0006
Casella, G., & Berger, R. (2002). Statistical Inference. Pacific Grove, CA, Thomson Learning.
Chen, Q., Yurou, K., Gao, W. & L. Mo. (2018). Effects of socioeconomics Status, parent-child relationship, and learning motivation on reading ability. Frontiers in Psychology 9(1297). https://doi.org/10.3389/fpsyg.2018.01297
Clements, A. M., Rimrodt, Abel, J. R., Blankner, J. G., Mostofsky, S. H., Pekar, J. J., Denckla, M. B. & L. E. Cutting. (2006). Sex differences in cerebral laterality of language and visuospatial processing. Brain and Language 98(2), pp. 150-158. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.bandl.2006.04.007
Coleman, J. S. (1966). Equality of Educational Opportunity . Washington, D.C, U.S. Dept. of Health, Education, Welfare, Office of Education.
Data USA. (diciembre de 2021). Obtenido de: https://datausa.io/profile/geo/puerto-rico
Departamento de Educación de Puerto Rico. (Septiembre de 2021). Perfil del Departamento de Educación. Obtenido de: https://perfilescolar.dde.pr/dashboard/summary/index.html?schoolcode=State.
Diamond, J. B., Randolph, A. & J. Spillane. (2004). Teachers’ expectations and sense of responsibility for students learning: The importance of race, class, and organization habitus. Antrophology and Education Quartely 35(1), pp. 75-98. https://doi.org/10.1525/aeq.2004.35.1.75
Disdier-Flores, O. (2018). Sistema de detección temprana de desertores escolares para la escuela pública superior en Puerto Rico: Utilizando datos para brindarle apoyo al estudiante. Instituto de Estadísticas de Puerto Rico. Obtenido de: www.estadisticas.pr.
Fayer, J. M., Castro, J., Díaz. M. & M. Plata. (1998). English in Puerto Rico. English Today 14(1), pp. 39-44. https://doi.org/10.1017/S0266078400000717
Feingold, A. (1992). Sex differences in variability in intellectual abilities: a new look at an old controversy. Review of Educational Research 62(1), pp. 61-84. https://doi.org/10.3102/00346543062001061
Fernández, J. (2010). El sexo y el género: Dos dominios científicos diferentes que debieran ser clarificados. Psicothema 22(2), pp. 256-262. Obtenido de https://www.redalyc.org/pdf/727/72712496013.pdf.
Fernández-Navas, M., Alcaraz-Salarirche, N. & M. Sola-Fernández. (2017). Evaluación y pruebas estandarizadas: una reflexión sobre el sentido, utilidad y efectos de estas pruebas en el campo educativo. Revista Iberoamericana de Evaluación Educativa 10(1), pp. 51-67. https://doi.org/10.15366/riee2017.10.1.003
Flynn, J. M. & R. M. Hossein. (1994). Prevalence of reading failure in boys compared with girls. Psychology in the Schools 31(1), pp. 66-71. https://doi.org/10.1002/1520-6807(199401)31:1<66::AID-PITS2310310109>3.0.CO;2-J
González-Rivera, M. (2020). El consenso del no consenso o el fracaso de una política lingüística en Puerto Rico. Hispania 103(2), pp. 211-224. https://doi.org/10.1353/hpn.2020.0033
González-Rivera, M. & L. A. Ortiz-López. (2018). El español y el inglés en Puerto Rico: Una polémica de más de un siglo. Centro Journal 30(1), pp. 106-131.
Guiso, L., Monte, F., Sapienza, P. &, L. Zingales. (2008). Culture, Gender, and Math. Science 320(5880), pp. 1164-1665. https://doi.org/10.1126/science.1154094
Hair, N.L., Hanson, J.L., Wolfe, B.L. & S. D. Pollak. (2015). Association of child poverty, brain development, and academic achievement. JAMA Pediatrics 169 (9), pp. 822-823. https://doi.org/10.1001/jamapediatrics.2015.1475
Halpern, D. &, M. L. LaMay. (2000). The smarter sex: A critical review of sex differences in intelligence. Educational Psychology Review 12(2), pp. 229-246. https://doi.org/10.1023/A:1009027516424
Halpern, D. & J. Wai. (2020). Sex differences in Intelligence, en R. J. Sternberg, The Cambridge Handbook of Intelligence. Cambridge, Cambridge University Press, pp. 317-345. https://doi.org/10.1017/9781108770422.015
Hermina, J. (2014). Two Different Speech Communities in Puerto Rico: a Qualitative Study about Social Class and Children Learning English in Public and Private Schools of the Island. Doctoral dissertation, University of New Mexico] Obtenido de: https://digitalrepository.unm.edu/ling_etds/16.
Hoff, E. (2003). The specificity of environmental influence: socioeconomic status affects early vocabulary development via maternal speech. Child Development 74(5), pp. 1368-1378. https://doi.org/10.1111/1467-8624.00612
Instituto de Estadísticas de Puerto Rico. (2018). Informe de matrícula oficial por escuela y por grado. Obtenido de: https://indicadores.pr/dataset/departamento-de-educacion-de-pr-matricula-por-grado/resource/fbd8f351-53a4-476c-8563-b7f99f62c200.
Instituto de Estadísticas de Puerto Rico. (2021). Compendios estadísticos sobre la educación privada no universitaria. Obtenido de: https://estadisticas.pr/en/inventario-de-estadisticas/compendios-estadisticos-sobre-la-educacion-privada-no-universitaria.
Johnson, B. & J. Stevens. (2006). Student achievement and elementary teachers’ perceptions of school climate. Learning Enviroments Research 9, pp. 111-122. https://doi.org/10.1007/s10984-006-9007-7
Kahlenberg, R. D. (2001). All Together Now: Creating Middle-Class Schools through Public School Choice. Washigton, DC, Brookings Institution Press.
Kieffer, M. J. (2012). Before and after third grade: Longitudinal evidence for the shifting role of socioeconomic status in reading growth. Reading and Writing 25, pp. 1725-1746. https://doi.org/10.1007/s11145-011-9339-2
Klecker, B. M. (2006). The gender gap in NAEP Fourth-, Eighth-, and Twelfh-grade reading scores across years. Reading Improvement 43(1), pp. 50-56.
Legewie, J. & T. A. DiPrete. (2012). School context and the gender gap in educational achievement. American Sociological Review 77(3), pp. 463-485. https://doi.org/10.1177/0003122412440802.
Lynn, R. & J. Mikk. (2009). Sex differences in reading achievement. Trames 13, pp. 3-13. https://doi.org/10.3176/tr.2009.1.01
Machin, S. & T. Pekkarinen. (2008). Global sex differences in test score variability. Science 322(5906), pp. 1331-1332. https://doi.org/10.1126/science.1162573
Mayobre-Rodríguez, P. (2007). La formación de la identidad de género una mirada desde la filosofía. Revista Venezolana de Estudios de la Mujer 12(28), pp. 35-62. Obtenido de: <http://ve.scielo.org/scielo.php?script=sci_arttext&pid=S1316-37012007000100004&lng=es&nrm=iso.
Merz, E. C., Maskus, E. A., Melvin, S. A., Noble, K. G. & H. Xiaofu. (2020). Socioeconomic disparities in language input are associated with children’s language-related brain structure and reading skills. Child Development 91(3), pp. 846-860. https://doi.org/10.1111/cdev.13239
Miller, D. & D. Halpern. (2014). The new science of cognitive sex differences. Trends in Cognitive Sciences 18(1), pp. 37-45. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.tics.2013.10.011
Morris, E. W. (2008). "Rednecks," "rutters,"and 'Rithmetic: social class, masculinity, and schooling in a rural context. Gender & Society 22(6), pp. 728-751. https://doi.org/10.1177/0891243208325163
Mpofu, E. & F. J. Van de Vijver. (2000). Taxonomic structure in early to middle childhood: A longitudinal study with Zimbabwean. International Journal of Behavioral Development 24(2), pp. 204-212. https://doi.org/10.1080/016502500383331
Muntoni, F. &, J. Retelsdorf. (2018). Gender-specific teacher expectations in reading- The fole of teacher's gender stereotypes. Contemporary Educational Psychology 54, pp. 212-220. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.cedpsych.2018.06.012
Muntoni, F. &, J. Retelsdorf. (2019). At their children's expense: How parent's gender stereotypes affect their children's reading outcomes. Learning and Instruction 60, pp. 95-103. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.learninstruc.2018.12.002
Murillo, F. J. & C. Martínez-Garrido. (2017). Segregación social en las escuelas públicas y privadas en América Latina. Educação & Sociedade 38(140), pp. 727-750. https://doi.org/10.1590/es0101-73302017167714.
Murillo, F. J., Martínez-Garrido, C. & R. Graña. (2020). Escuelas públicas para pobres, escuelas privadas para ricos: Relación entre educación privada y segregación escolar de carácter socio-económico en América Latina. RUNAE 5, pp. 11-22.
Noble, K. G., Farah, M. J. & B. D. McCandliss. (2006). Socioeconomic background modulates cognition-achievement relationship in reading. Cognitive Development 21(3), pp. 349-368. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.cogdev.2006.01.007
Noble, K. G., Houston, S. M., Brito, N. H., Bartsch, H., Kan, E. & S. Kuperman. (2015). Family Income, Parental Education and Brain Structure in Children and Adolescents. Nature Neuroscience 18(5), pp. 773-778. https://doi.org/10.1038/nn.3983
Pan, J., Kong, Y., Shuang, S., McBride, C., Hongyun, L. & H. Shu. (2017). Socioeconomic status, parent report of children’s early language skills, and late literacy skills: a long term follow-up study among Chinese children. Reading and Writing 30, pp. 401-416. https://doi.org/10.1007/s11145-016-9682-4
Plante, I., Soblonniére, Aronson, J. M. & M. Théorêt. (2013). Gender sterotype endorsment and achievement-related outcomes: The role of competence beliefs and task values. Contemporary Educational Psychology 38(3), pp. 225-235. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.cedpsych.2013.03.004
Pousada, A. (1999). The singularly strange story of the English language in Puerto Rico. Milenio 3, pp. 33-61.
Raizada, R. D., Richards, T. L., Meltzoff, A. & P. Kuhl. (2008). Socioeconomic status predicts hemispheric specialisation of the left inferior frontal gyrus in young children. Neuroimage 40(3), pp. 1392-1401. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.neuroimage.2008.01.021
Reardon, S. F. (2014). The widening academic achievement gap between the rich and the poor. En D. B. Grusky, & K. R. Weisshaar, Social Stratification. New York, Routledge, pp. 91-116. https://doi.org/10.4324/9780429494642
Reardon, S. F., Fahle, E. M., Kalogrides, D., Podolsky, A. & R. C. Zárate. (2019). Gender achievement gaps in U.S School Districts. American Educational Research Journal 56(6), pp. 2474-2508. https://doi.org/10.3102/0002831219843824.
Reilly, D. (2012). Gender, culture, and sex-typed cognitive abilities. PLoS ONE 7(7). https://doi.org/10.1371/journal.pone.0039904.
Reilly, D., Neumann, D. L. & G. Andrew. (2016). Sex and sex-role differences in specific cognitive abilities. Intelligence 54, pp. 147-158.
https://doi.org/10.1016/j.intell.2015.12.004.
Reilly, D., Neumann, D. L. & G. Andrew. (2018). Gender differences in reading and writing achievement: Evidence from the National Assessmentr of Educational Progress (NAEP). Amerincan Psychological Association 74(4), pp. 445-458. https://doi.org/10.1037/amp0000356.
Rodríguez-Arroyo, S. (2013). The never ending story of language policy in Puerto Rico. Comunicación, Cultura y Política 4(1), pp. 79-98. Obtenido de:https://digitalcommons.unomaha.edu/cgi/viewcontent.cgi?article=1077&context= tedfacpub.
Romeo, R. R., Christodoulou, J. A., Halverson, K. K., Muertagh, J., Cyr, A., Schimmerl, C. & J. D. Gabrieli. (2018). Socioeconomic status and reading disability: Neuroanatomy and plasticity in response to intervetion. Cerebral Cortex 28, pp. 2297-2312. https://doi.org/10.1093/cercor/bhx131.
Rowe, M. L. (2018). Understanding socioeconomic differences in parents' speech to children. Child Development Perspectives 12(2), pp.122-127. https://doi.org/10.1111/cdep.12271.
Rowe, M. & S. Goldin-Meadow. (2009). Differences in early gesture explain SES disparities in child vocabulary size at school entry. Science 323(5916), pp. 951-953. https://doi.org/10.1126/science.1167025.
Scheiber, C., Reynolds, M. R., Hajovsky, D. B. & A. S. Kaufman. (2015). Gender differences in Achievement in a large, nationnaly representative sample children and adolescents. Psychology in the Schools 52(2), pp. 335-348. https://doi.org/10.1002/pits.21827.
Sirin, S. R. (2005). Socioeconomic status and cademic achievement: A meta-analytic review of research. Review of Educational Research 75(3), pp. 417-453. https://doi.org/10.3102/00346543075003417.
Solbes-Canales, I., Valverde-Montesino, S. & P. Herranz-Hernández. (2020). Socialization of gender stereotypes related to attributed and professiones among young Spanish school-age children. Frontiers in Psychology 11(609). https://doi.org/10.3389/fpsyg.2020.00609.
State Data Center de Puerto Rico. (2019). En pobreza el 50% o más de la población en 36 municipios de Puerto Rico. Obtenido de https://censo.estadisticas.pr/Comunicado-de-prensa/2019-12-19t145558.
Strand, S. (2016). Do some schools narrow the gap? Differential school effectiveness revisited. Review of Education 4(2), pp.107-144. https://doi.org/10.1002/rev3.3054.
Terrier, C. (2020). Boys lag behind: How teachers' gender biases affect student achievement. Economics of Education Review 77(101981). https://doi.org/10.1016/j.econedurev.2020.101981.
Therriault, S., Bhatt, M. & J. Narlock. (2017). Puerto Rico school characteristics and student graduation: Implications for research and policy. Washington, DC, U.S. Department of Education, Institute of Education Sciences, National Center for Education Evaluation and Regional Assistance, Regional Educational Laboratory Northeast and Islands. Obtenido de http://ies.ed.gov/ncee/edlabs.
Timperley, H. & A. Alton-Lee. (2008). Reframing teacher professional learning: An alternative policy approach to strengthening valued outcomes for diverse learners. Review of Research in Education 32(1), pp. 329-369. https://doi.org/10.3102/0091732X07308968
Timperley, H. & G. Phillips. (2003). Changing and sustaining teachers’ expectations through professional development in literacy. Teaching and Theacher Education 19(6), pp. 627-641. https://doi.org/10.1016/S0742-051X(03)00058-1
Torruellas, R. M. (1990). Learning English in Three Private Schools in Puerto Rico: Issues of Class, Identity and Ideology. Doctoral dissertation, New York University.
U.S Census Bureau. (2021). Quick Facts Puerto Rico . Obtenido de: https://www.census.gov/quickfacts/PR.
White, G. W., Stepney, C. T., Hatchimonji, D. R., Moceri, D. C., Linsky, A. V. & J. A. Reyes-Portillo. (2016). The increasing impact of socioeconomics and race on stanndarized academic test scores across elementary, middle, and high school. American Journal of Orthopsychiatry 86(1), pp.10-23. https://doi.org/10.1037/ort0000122.
White, K. R. (1982). The relation between socioeconomic status and academic achievement. Psychological Bulletin 91(3), pp. 461-481. https://doi.org/10.1037/0033-2909.91.3.461.
Willis, P. (1981). Learning to Labor: How working Class Kids Get Working Class Jobs. New York, Columbia University Press.
Yu, J., McLellan, R., & Winter, L. (2021). Which boys and girls are falling behind? Linking adolescents'gender role profiles to motivation, engagement, achievement. Journal of Youth and Adolescence 50, pp. 336-352. https://doi.org/10.1007/s10964-020-01293-z
Downloads
Published
How to Cite
Issue
Section
License
Copyright (c) 2022 Alexandra Morales-Reyes, José C. Pérez Vargas, Wolfgang Rolke, Jessimar Siberón
This work is licensed under a Creative Commons Attribution 3.0 Unported License.
