Jødetysk, jargon, jiddisk
The history of a glottonym in light of Language Making processes on Norwegian soil
DOI:
https://doi.org/10.7557/17.6628Keywords:
glottonyms, Yiddish, Language Making, minority languages, Jewish cultureAbstract
A crucial component of the cultural import that accompanied the immigration of so-called “Jews of the East” (Ger. “Ostjuden”) to Norway in the latter half of the 19th century was the language used by the majority of this group, what we today know as Yiddish. There is much evidence, however, that both the language and the glottonym were relatively vague terms for most Norwegians well into the 20th century, and the article attempts to map how “the language of the Jews” was referred to in this national minority’s early phase. This gives us insights into which sociolinguistic conceptualisations arose when facing a linguistic phenomenon that most people considered unfamiliar. A wide range of written sources, primarily mass media texts such as newspapers, magazines, and periodicals, have been scrutinized with particular attention to the terms used for “Jewish language” in a Norwegian context. This review paints a picture of a protracted process of Language Making, where an uncontested glottonym took decades to establish. One reason for this appears to be the fact that this linguistic practice’s status as a language has persistently been called into question. The data also reveals that the dawdling consolidation of Yiddish in Norway is connected with tendencies in the contemporaneous international discussion of Jewish language and culture.
References
Abrahamsen, D. (1935). Jeg er jøde: en norsk jøde om jødene i Norge og om folket uten landegrenser. J. Grundt Tanum.
Acher, M. [pseudonym for Nathan Birnbaum]. (1902). Hebraeisch und Juedisch. Ost und West. Illustrierte Monatsschrift für das gesamte Judentum, 7, 457–464.
Alberti, E. (1868). Lexicon der Schleswig-Holstein-Laugenburgischen und Eutinischen Schriftsteller von 1829 bis Mitte 1866. 2. Abteilung. M–Z. Akademische Buchhandlung.
Aptroot, M. & Gruschka, R. (2010). Jiddisch. Geschichte und Kultur einer Weltsprache. Verlag C.H. Beck.
Beckerman, G. (2016). A promised land in the U.S.S.R. The New Republic (31. august 2016). https://newrepublic.com/article/136493/promised-land-ussr
Blangstrup, C. (1904). Salmonsens store illustrerede Konversationsleksikon. En nordisk Encyklopædi. XV. Bind Richter–Sjögren. Brødrene Salmonsen.
Blangstrup, C. (red.). (1922). Salmonsens Konversations-Leksikon. 2. utgave. Bind XIII: Jernbaneret–Kirkeskat. J.H. Schultz Forlagsboghandel.
Blommaert, J. (2008). Artefactual ideologies and the textual production of African languages. Language & Communication, 28(4), 291–307. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.langcom.2008.02.003
Bright, W. (1997). Notes. Language in Society, 26(3), 469–470. https://doi.org/10.1017/S0047404500019679
Bruland, B. (2010). Norske jøder – historie og kultur. I A.B. Lund & B.B. Moen (red.), Nasjonale minoriteter i det flerkulturelle Norge (s. 69–84). Tapir akademisk forlag.
Christensen, C.A.R. (red.). (1939). Familieboken: verket om virkelighetens eventyr. 5. bind: Is–Løvtrær. H. Aschehoug & Co. (W. Nygaard).
Christensen, C.A.R. & Lid, J. (red.). (1951). Familieboka: verket om virkelig-hetens eventyr. Bind 5: Intelligens–Løver (2. utg.). H. Aschehoug & Co. (W. Nygaard).
Dahl, J.P.F.D. & Dahl F.V. (1924). Ludvig Meyers Fremmedordbog (8. utg.). Gyldendalske Boghandel – Nordisk Forlag.
Dahl, B.T. & Hammer, H. (1907). Dansk Ordbog for Folket. Første Bind A–L. Gyldendalske Boghandel.
Dansk Ordbog (1820). Tredie Tome: I–L. Videnskabernes Selskabs Bestyrelse.
Duden Onlinewörterbuch (2022). Cornelsen Verlag. www.duden.de
[DWDS] Digitales Wörterbuch der deutschen Sprache. (U.å.). Berlin-Brandenburgische Akademie der Wissenschaften. http://www.dwds.de
Daae, P. (1903). Om Chicago: Amerikas mest amerikanske by og den tredje største norske by i verden. Alb. Cammermeyers Forlag.
Eberhard, D.M., Simons, G.F. & Fennig, C.D. (red.). (2022). Ethnologue: Languages of the World (25. utg.). SIL International. Nettversjon: https://www.ethnologue.com/language/yid
Elyada, A. (2012). A Goy Who Speaks Yiddish: Christians and the Jewish Language in Early Modern Germany. Stanford University Press.
Even-Zohar, I. (1990). Aspects of the Hebrew-Yiddish polysystem. A case of a multilingual polysystem. Poetics Today, 11(1), 121–130. https://doi.org/10.2307/1772675
Fishman, J.A. (1985). The sociology of Jewish languages from a general sociolinguistic point of view. I J.A. Fishman (red.), Readings in the Sociology of Jewish Languages (s. 3–21). Brill.
Friis, J. & Hegna T. (red.). (1934). Arbeidernes leksikon. Bind IV. Arbeider-magasinets forlag.
Gal, S. (2009). Migration, minorities and multilingualism: Language ideologies in Europe. I C. Mar-Molinero & P. Stevenson (red.), Language Ideologies, Policies and Practices. Language and the Future of Europe (s. 13–27). Palgrave Macmillan. https://doi.org/10.1057/9780230523883_2
Geller, E. & Gajek, M. (2022). Yiddish in the framework of the Mixed Language debate. I E. Geller, M. Gajek & A. Reibach (red.), Yiddish as a Mixed Language. Yiddish-Slavic Language Contact and Its Linguistic Outcome (s. 23–87). Brill. https://doi.org/10.1163/9789004525214_003
Grenoble, L.A. (2003). Language Policy in the Soviet Union. Springer. https://doi.org/10.1007/0-306-48083-2
Guttu, T. (red.). (1977). Riksmålsordboken. Kunnskapsforlaget.
Guttu, T. (red.). (2017). Kunnskapsforlagets store norske ordbok (3. utg.). Kunnskapsforlaget.
Hansen, H. (1918). Landstrykerliv i Amerika. Det Norske Arbeiderpartis forlag.
Hellevik, A. (1980). Nynorsk ordliste. Større utgåve (4. utg.). Det Norske Samlaget.
Horn, F.W. (red.). (1896). Illustreret Konversationsleksikon: En Haandbog for alle. Bind 5: Irving–Kvægpest. H. Hagerups Boghandel. I kommisjon i Norge hos H. Aschehoug & Co (W. Nygaard).
Hovdenak, M., Killingbergtrø, L., Lauvhjell, A., Nordlie, S., Rommetveit, M. & Worren, D. (red.). (1986). Nynorskordboka. Definisjons- og rettskrivingsordbok. Det Norske Samlaget.
Hårstad, S. (2022). “Norsk er nu det eneste sprog vi virkelig kan” – om språklig praksis i jødiske miljøer i Norge 1880–1940. Maal og Minne, 114(1), 45–83. https://doi.org/10.52145/mom.v114i1.2084
Irvine, J. & Gal, S. (2001). Language ideology and linguistic differentiation. I P. Kroskrity (red.), Regimes of Language: Ideology, Polities, and Identities (s. 35–83). School of American Research Press.
Johnsen, C. (1881). Norsk Haandlexikon for almennyttige Kundskaber. Første bind: A–J. Chr. Johnsens Forlag.
Joseph, J.E. (2006). Language and Politics. Edinburgh University Press.
Katz, D. (2011). Language: Yiddish. YIVO Encyclopedia of Jews in Eastern Europe. Digitalt tilgjengelig: https://yivoencyclopedia.org/article.aspx/Language/Yiddish
Katz, P.B. (1988). De første jøder i Danmark. I G. Broberg, H. Runblom & M. Tydén (red.), Judiskt liv i Norden (s. 71–98). Studia Multiethnica Uppsaliensia 6. Uppsala Universitet.
Kjeldstadli, K. (2003). Mange samfunn i samfunnet? I E. Niemi, J.E. Myhre & K. Kjeldstadli (red.), Norsk innvandringshistorie, bind 2: I nasjonalstatens tid 1814–1940 (s. 392–431). Pax forlag.
Kofod, H.A. (1827). Conversations-Lexicon, eller Encyclopædisk Haandbog over de i selskabelig Underholdning og ved Læsning forekommende Gjenstande, Navne og Begreber. 27: Supplement Sch–The. A. Soldin.
Krogvig, A. (red.). (1922). Aschehougs konversationsleksikon. Bind V. H. Aschehoug & Co. (W. Nygaard).
Krämer, P., Vogl, U. & Kolehmainen, L. (2022). What is “Language Making”? International Journal of the Sociology of Language, 274, 1–27. https://doi.org/10.1515/ijsl-2021-0016
Kuznitz, C.E. (2014). YIVO and the Making of Modern Jewish Culture: Scholarship for the Yiddish Nation. Cambridge University Press. https://doi.org/10.1017/CBO9781139013604
Léglise, I. & Migge, B. (2006). Language-naming practices, ideologies and linguistic practices: Toward a comprehensive description of language varieties. Language in Society, 35(3), 313–339. https://doi.org/10.1017/S0047404506060155
Lindner, N. (1884). Nordisk familjebok – Konversationslexikon och real-encyklopedi. 7. Hufvudskål–Kaffraria. Expeditionen af Nordisk Familjebok.
Lionæs, E. & Stene, A. (1935). Tidens fremmedordbok. Tiden Norsk Forlag.
Matras, Y. & Bakker, P. (2008). The study of mixed languages. I Y. Matras & P. Bakker (red.), The Mixed Language Debate. Theoretical and Empirical Advances (s. 1–20). De Gruyter Mouton. https://doi.org/10.1515/9783110197242.1
Meyer, K. (red.). (1921). Karl Meyers Konversationsleksikon. Dansk-norsk Haandbog. Bind 2. Steen Hasselbalchs Forlag.
Molbech, C. (1833). Dansk Ordbog indeholdende det danske Sprogs Stammeord, tilligemed afledede og sammensatte Ord efter den nuværende Sprogbrug forklarede i deres forskiellige Betydninger, og ved Talemaader og Exempler Oplyste. Gyldendalske Boghandlings Forlag.
Myhre, J.E. (2003). Å leve i det nye landet, Norge. I E. Niemi, J.E. Myhre & K. Kjeldstadli (red.), Norsk innvandringshistorie, bind 2: I nasjonalstatens tid 1814–1940 (s. 255–294). Pax forlag.
Nahon, P. (2017). Notes lexicologiques sur des interférences entre yidich et français modern. Revue de Linguistique Romane, 81, 139–155.
Olszewska, I. (2013). Ostjuden vs. Westjuden: Zu den kulturellen Differenzen innerhalb des europäischen Judentums am Beispiel der Flugschrift von Nathan Birnbaum Was sind die Ostjuden: Zur ersten Information (1916). I A. Kątny, I. Olszewska & A. Twardowska (red.), Ashkenazim and Sephardim: A European perspective (s. 113–126). Peter Lang Verlag. https://doi.org/10.3726/978-3-653-03216-1
Olszewska, I. & Twardowska, A. (2016). Yiddish and Judeo-Spanish as Determinants of Identity: As Illustrated in the Jewish Press of the First Half of the Twentieth Century. Colloquia Humanistica, 5, 79–103. https://doi.org/10.11649/ch.2016.007
Olszewska, I. & Twardowska, A. (2019). A positive image of Yiddish and Judeo-Spanish in the Jewish press of the first half of the 20th century: An overview. I A. Kątny, I. Olszewska & A. Twardowska (red.), Ashkenazim and Sephardim: Language Miscellanea (s. 23–42). Peter Lang Verlag. https://doi.org/10.3726/b14945
Oxford English Dictionary Online (2022). Oxford University Press. https://www.oed.com/
Piller, I. (2015). Language ideologies. I K. Tracy, C. Ilie & T. Sandel (red.), The International Encyclopedia of Language and Social Interaction, Vol. II (s. 917–927). Wiley-Blackwell. https://doi.org/10.1002/9781118611463.wbielsi140
Plotkin, V. (2001). Über die Rolle von genetischen, arealen und ethnokulturellen Faktoren in Entstehung und Evolution des Jiddischen. ELiSe: Essener Linguistische Skripte, 2, 55–66. Digital versjon: https://www.uni-due.de/imperia/md/content/elise/ausgabe_2_2001_plotkin.pdf
Raknes, O. (1927). Engelsk–norsk ordbok. H. Aschehoug & Co. (W. Nygaard).
Ramer, A.M. & Wolf, M. (1996). Yiddish origins: The Austro-Bavarian problem. Folia Linguistica Historica, 30, 193–210. https://doi.org/10.1515/flih.1996.17.1-2.193
Schieldrop, E.B. (red.). (1933). Gyldendals konversasjonsleksikon. Bind VII Japan–Krysshode. Gyldendal Norsk Forlag.
Shandler, J. (2020). Yiddish. Biography of a Language. Oxford University Press. https://doi.org/10.1093/oso/9780190651961.001.0001
Siful-Sifadda [pseudonym for Henrik Wergeland]. (1827). “Ah!” En Farce. Schiwe. Digital versjon: https://www.dokpro.uio.no/wergeland/WII1/WII1013.html
Simon, B. (1993). Jiddische Sprachgeschichte. Versuch einer neuen Grund-legung. Jüdischer Verlag.
Skautrup, P. (1953). Det danske sprogs historie. Tredie bind: Fra Holbergs komedier til H.C. Andersens eventyr. Gyldendalske boghandel / Nordisk forlag.
Spolsky, B. (2014). The Languages of the Jews: A Sociolinguistic History. Cambridge University Press. https://doi.org/10.1017/CBO9781107295292
Sudmann, A. (1954). Norsk allkunnebok. VI. bandet. Fonna forlag.
Sverdrup, J. (1933). Tysk–norsk ordbok. Første bind A–O. Nasjonalforlaget.
Sverdrup, J. (1936). Tysk–norsk ordbok. Annet bind P–Z. Nasjonalforlaget.
Sverdrup, J. & Sandvei, M. (1940). Norsk rettskrivningsordbok. J.G. Tanum.
Thing, M. (2007). Yiddish in Denmark. The Mendele Review: Yiddish Literature and Language, 11(6). http://yiddish.haifa.ac.il/tmr/tmr11/tmr11006.htm
Thing, M. (2008). De russiske jøder i København 1882–1943. Gyldendal.
Timme, F. (1841). Kongelige Forordninger, aabne Breve og andre trykte Anordninger for Norge i Tidsrummet 1648–1814. 1. bind 1648–1770. Cappelen.
Tønnessen, S.J. (1910). Retskrivingsordbog over det norske riksmaal. Gyldendalske Boghandel.
Ulvund, F. (2014). Fridomens grenser 1814–1851. Handhevinga av den norske “jødeparagrafen”. Scandinavian Academic Press.
Vaughan, J., Singer, R. & Garde, M. (2022). Language naming in Indigenous Australia: a view from western Arnhem Land. Multilingua, 1–36. https://doi.org/10.1515/multi-2021-0005
Weinreich, M. (2006). History of the Yiddish Language. Yale University Press. [Først utgitt på jiddisk i 1973.]
Zuckermann, G. (2012). Introduction to the Joshua A. Fishman comprehensive bibliography. International Journal of the Sociology of Language, 213, 149–152. https://doi.org/10.1515/ijsl-2012-0014
Downloads
Published
Issue
Section
License
Copyright (c) 2022 Stian Hårstad
This work is licensed under a Creative Commons Attribution 4.0 International License.
