Talemål, identitet og tilhørighet
Sosiolingvistiske perspektiv på språkanalyse for beskyttelse og språkprøver for opphold og statsborgerskap
DOI:
https://doi.org/10.7557/17.5926Emneord (Nøkkelord):
språkprøver, språkanalyse, asyl, statsborgerskap, språkideologi, nasjonalismeSammendrag
Artikkelen løfter fram to eksempel fra norsk lovgivning og rettspraksis, der vurderinger av talemål og muntlig språkkompetanse nå danner juridisk grunnlag for innvandreres rett til asyl, opphold og statsborgerskap i Norge: Språkanalyse ved søknad om beskyttelse, som brukes for å vurdere hvor asylsøkere til Norge kommer fra, og språkkrav for permanent opphold og statsborgerskap, der innvandrere som bor fast i Norge, må dokumentere muntlig språkkompetanse på et bestemt nivå for å oppnå ei rekke juridiske og demokratiske rettigheter. Artikkelen gir en oversikt over den språkvitenskapelige kritikken som er kommet mot disse to eksempla, og viser hvordan de er blitt kritisert for å gjenspeile beslutningstakeres og forvaltningsapparats utdaterte forestillinger om forhold mellom språk og steds- og nasjonstilhørighet.
Referanser
Anderson, B. (1983). Imagined Communities: Reflections on the Origin and Spread of Nationalism. London: Verso.
Anderson, B. (2015). Immigration and the worker citizen. I B. Anderson & V. Hughes (red.), Citizenship and its Others (s. 41–57). London: Palgrave Macmillan. https://doi.org/10.1057/9781137435088_5
Arbeids- og inkluderingsdepartementet (2007, 27. november). Samiskopplæring istedenfor norskopplæring. Svar på e-post fra Fylkesmannen i Finnmark. Henta fra: https://www.regjeringen.no/globalassets/upload/aid/publikasjoner/lover_og_regler/2009/179547115-13-200600186-6.pdf
Arends, J., Blommaert, J., Corcodan, C., Dikker, S., Eades, D., Finney, M. A., Fraser, H., Hyltenstam, K., Jacquement, M., Kamarah, S. U., Maryns, K., McNamara, T., Ngom, F., Patrick, P. L., Piller, I., De Rooij, V., Siegel, J., Singler, J. V. & Verrips, M. (Language and National Origin Group). (2004). Guidelines for the use of language analysis in relation to question of national origin in refugee cases. The International Journal of Speech, Language and the Law, 11(2), 261–266. https://doi.org/10.1558/ijsll.v11i2.261
Avermaet, P. Van & Gysen, S. (2009). One nation, two policies: Language requirements for citizenship and integration in Belgium. I G. Extra, M. Spotti & P. Van Avermaet (red.), Language Testing, Migration and Citizenship: Cross-National Perspectives (s. 107–124). London: Continuum.
Auer, P., (2013). The geography of language: Steps toward a new approach. FRAGL 16, 1–39. Henta fra: http://portal.uni-freiburg.de/sdd/fragl/2013.16
Baltisberger, E. & Hubbuch, P. (2010). LADO with specialized linguists – The development of LINGUA’s working method. I K. Zwaan, M. Verrips & P. Muyskens (red.), Language and Origin: The Role of Language in European Asylum Procedures (s. 9–20). Nijmegen: Wolf Legal Publishers.
Blommaert, J. & Verschueren, J. (1998). The role of language in European nationalist ideologies. Pragmatics, 2, 335–375. https://doi.org/10.1075/prag.2.3.13blo
Bruzos, A., Erdocia, I. & Kahn, K. (2018). The path to naturalization in Spain: Old ideologies, new language testing regimes and the problem of test use. Language Policy, 17, 419–441. https://doi.org/10.1007/s10993-017-9452-4
Böcker, A. & Strik, T. (2011). Language and knowledge tests for permanent residence rights: Help or hindrance for integration? European Journal of Migration and Law, 13, 157–184. https://doi.org/10.1163/157181611X571268
Carlsen, C.H. & Bugge, E. (2021). Språkkrav for statsborgerskap og hvordan de begrunnes. I M. Monsen & V. Pájaro (red.), Andrespråkslæring hos vaksne (s. 191–216). Oslo: Cappelen Damm Akademisk.
Carlsen, C.H. & Moe, E. (2019). Vurdering av språkferdigheter. Bergen: Fagbokforlaget.
Carlsen, C.H. & Rocca, L. (2021). Language test misuse, Language Assessment Quarterly. https://doi.org/10.1080/15434303.2021.1947288
Chambers, J.K. & Trudgill, P. (1980). Dialectology. Cambridge: Cambridge University Press. https://doi.org/10.1017/CBO9780511805103
Cornips, L. & de Rooij, V.A. (red.). (2018). The Sociolinguistics of Place and Belonging: Perspectives from the Margins. Amsterdam: John Benjamins. https://doi.org/10.1075/impact.45
Eades, D. (2010). Guidelines from linguists for LADO. I K. Zwaan, M. Verrips & P. Muyskens (red.), Language and Origin: The Role of Language in European Asylum Procedures (s. 35–42). Nijmegen: Wolf Legal Publishers.
Eades, D., Fraser, H., Siegel, J., McNamara, T. & Baker, B. (2003). Linguistic identification in the determination of nationality: A preliminary report. Language Policy, 2(2), 179–199. https://doi.org/10.1023/A:1024640612273
Goodman, S.W. (2011). Controlling immigration through language and country knowledge requirements. West European Politics, 34(2), 235–255. https://doi.org/10.1080/01402382.2011.546569
Goodman, S.W. & Wright, M. (2015). Does mandatory integration matter? Effects of civic requirements on immigrant socio-economic and political outcomes, Journal of Ethnic and Migration Studies, 41(12), 1885–1908. https://doi.org/10.1080/1369183X.2015.1042434
Heller, M. (2008). Language and the nation-state: Challenges to sociolinguistic theory and practice. Journal of Sociolinguistics, 12(4), 504–524. https://doi.org/10.1111/j.1467-9841.2008.00373.x
Kerswill, P. (2006). Migration and language. I K. Mattheier, U. Ammon & P. Trudgill (red.): Sociolinguistics/Soziolinguistik. An International Handbook of the Science of Language and Society (s. 2271–2285). Berlin: De Gruyter.
Khan, K. (2016). Citizenship, securitization and suspicion in UK ESOL policy. I K. Arnaut, M.S. Karrebæk, M. Spotti & J. Blommaert (red.), Engaging Superdiversity: Recombining Spaces, Times and Language Practices (s. 303–320). https://doi.org/10.21832/9781783096800
Khan, K. & McNamara, T. (2017). Citizenship, immigration laws, and language. I S. Canagarajah (red.), The Routledge Handbook of Migration and Language, (s. 451–467). Abingdon: Taylor & Francis. https://doi.org/10.4324/9781315754512
Kjelaas, I. (2016). Asylintervjuet med enslige mindreårige asylsøkere – en utfordrende samtale. Barn, 2, 71–82.
Le Page, R.B. & Tabouret-Keller, A. (1985). Acts of Identity: Creole-Based Approaches to Language and Ethnicity. Cambridge: Cambridge University Press.
Maryns, K. (2005). Monolingual language ideologies and code choice in the Belgian asylum procedure. Language and Communication, 25(3), 299–314. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.langcom.2005.03.009
McNamara, T. (2005). 21st century shibboleth: Language tests, identity and intergroup conflict. Language Policy, 4(4), 351–370. https://doi.org/10.1007/s10993-005-2886-0
McNamara, T. (2014). The promise and threat of the shibboleth: Linguistic representation of asylum seekers. I D.H. Rellstab & C. Schlote (red.), Representations of war, migration and refugeehood (s. 93–104). New York: Routledge. https://doi.org/10.4324/9781315884370
McNamara, T. (2020). The anti-shibboleth: The traumatic character of the shibboleth as silence. Applied Linguistics, 41(3), 334–351. https://doi.org/10.1093/applin/amaa007
McNamara, T. & Ryan, K. (2011). Fairness versus justice in language testing. Language Assessment Quarterly, 8(2), 161–178. https://doi.org/10.1080/15434303.2011.565438
McNamara, T., Verrips, M. & van den Hazelkamp, C. (2010). LADO, validity and language testing. I K. Zwaan, M. Verrips & P. Muyskens (red.), Language and Origin: The Role of Language in European Asylum Procedures (s. 61–72). Nijmegen: Wolf Legal Publishers.
Messick, S. (1989). Validity. I R.L. Linn (red.), Educational Measurement (s. 13–104). New York: Macmillan.
Messick, S. (1995). Validity of psychological assessment: Validation of inferences from persons’ responses and performances as scientific inquiry into score meaning. American Psychologist, 50(9), 741–749. https://psycnet.apa.org/doi/10.1037/0003-066X.50.9.741
Milani, T., Bauer, S., Carlson, M., Spehar, A. & von Brömssen, K. (2021). Citizenship as status, habitus and acts: Language requirements and civic orientation in Sweden. Citizenship Studies, 25(6), 756–772. https://doi.org/10.1080/13621025.2021.1968698
Nasjonalt ID-senter. (2013). Identitetsvurderinger i Somaliasaker. Henta fra: https://www.nidsenter.no/globalassets/dokumenter/publikasjoner/nid-rapporter/somaliarapporten_off.pdf
Olsen, E.T. (2019, 12. desember). Døve flyktninger vil rammes urimelig hardt av nye språkkrav. Forskersonen.no, kronikk. Henta fra: https://forskersonen.no/kronikk-meninger-sprak-og-samfunn/doveflyktninger-vil-rammes-urimelig-hardt-av-nye-sprakkrav/1606359
Omar, Y.S. (2016). Identity and sense of belonging of young Somali men in a Western context: Case studies from Melbourne and Minneapolis. Bildhaan: An International Journal of Somali Studies, 16, 65–79. https://digitalcommons.macalester.edu/bildhaan/vol16/iss1/11/
Oers, R. van (2014). Deserving Citizenship: Citizenship Tests in Germany, the Netherlands and the United Kingdom. Leiden: M. Nijhoff. https://doi.org/10.1163/9789004251076
Ommeren, R. van (2016). Den flerstemmige språkbrukeren. En sosiolingvistisk studie av norske bidialektale (Doktoravhandling), NTNU, Trondheim.
Patrick, P.L. (2012). Language analysis for determination of origin. Objective evidence for refugee status determination. I L.M. Tiersma & P.M. Solan (red.), The Oxford Handbook of Language and Law (s. 533–546). Oxford: Oxford University Press. https://doi.org/10.1093/oxfordhb/9780199572120.013.0039
Rheindorf, M. & Wodak, R. (red.) (2020). Sociolinguistic Perspectives on Migration Control: Language Policy, Identity and Belonging. Bristol: Multilingual Matters. https://doi.org/10.21832/9781788924689
Rocca, L., Carlsen, C.H. & Deygers, B. (2020). Linguistic Integration of Adult Migrants: Requirements and Learning Opportunities. Strasbourg: Council of Europe Publication.
Røyneland, U. (2017). Hva skal til for å høres ut som du hører til? Forestillinger om dialektale identiteter i det senmoderne Norge. I J.-O. Östman, C. Sandström, P. Gustavsson & L. Södergård (red.), Ideologi, identitet, intervention. Nordisk dialektologi 10, (s. 91–107). Helsingfors: Nordica vid Finska, finskugriska och nordiska institutionen, Helsingfors universitet. http://hdl.handle.net/10138/224299
Schmid, M.S. (2019). Language attrition as a problem for LADO. I P.L. Patrick, M.S. Schmid & K. Zwaan (red.), Language Analysis for the Determination of Origin: Current Perspectives and New Directions (s. 155–165). Cham: Springer. https://doi.org/10.1007/978-3-319-79003-9
Shohamy, E. (2001). The Power of Tests: A Critical Perspective on the Uses of Language Tests. Harlow: Pearson. https://doi.org/10.4324/9781315837970
Shohamy, E. (2007). Language tests as language policy tools. Assessment in Education, 14, 117–130. https://doi.org/10.1080/09695940701272948
Språkrådet. (2019). Høyringsfråsegn om framlegg til lov om integrering og framlegg til endringar i lov om norsk statsborgerskap. https://www.regjeringen.no/contentassets/22ac3eaeb60e4cc193e0ec7d684fb22a/sprakradet.pdf?uid=Språkrådet
Utdanningsnytt [opprop fra «108 ansatte ved forskjellige deler av norskopplæringen»]. (2020, 16. juni). Urealistiske språkkrav til statsborgerskap bør fjernes. Utdanningsnytt.no, kronikk. Henta fra: https://www.utdanningsnytt.no/norskopplaering-sprakkravstatsborgerskap/urealistiske-sprakkrav-til-statsborgerskap-borfjernes/246811
Utlendingsdirektoratet. (2011). Språkanalyse ved søknad om beskyttelse (2011-023). Henta fra: https://www.udiregelverk.no/rettskilder/udi-retningslinjer/udi-2011-023/#4.5.3.4.5.3_Gjennomf%C3%B8ring_av_spr%C3%A5kan
Utlendingsdirektoratet. (2011). Technical Specifications for Language Analysis for the Norwegian Immigration Administration (2011-023V2). Henta fra: https://www.udiregelverk.no/rettskilder/udi-retningslinjer/udi-2011-023/udi-2011-023v2/
Zwaan, K., Verrips, M. & Muyskens, P. (red.), Language and Origin. The Role of Language in European Asylum Procedures. Nijmegen: Wolf Legal Publishers.
Nedlastinger
Publisert
Utgave
Seksjon
Lisens
Opphavsrett 2021 Edit Bugge
![Creative Commons License](http://i.creativecommons.org/l/by/4.0/88x31.png)
Dette verket er lisensiert under Creative Commons Attribution 4.0 International License.